Jugurtha and the Numidian resistance: between rebellion and betrayal of allies

 

Introduction :

Jugurtha, a pivotal figure in the tumultuous era of the Roman Republic, emerges from the annals of North African history as a symbol of defiance against Roman expansion. Born around 160 BC into the royal lineage of Numidia, a kingdom spanning modern-day Algeria and a part of Tunisia, Jugurtha’s reign unfolded against the backdrop of intricate power dynamics and the strategic imperatives of the Roman Republic.

Numidia, nestled between the Mediterranean Sea and the vast Sahara Desert, held paramount geopolitical importance during the Roman Republic’s quest for dominance. Its fertile lands and strategic location positioned it as a key player in the Roman conquest. The kingdom’s autonomy, however, faced the relentless tide of Roman influence.

Jugurtha’s early life was shaped by alliances and betrayals, as he navigated the complexities of Numidian court politics. Initially aligned with Rome and even serving in the Roman army, Jugurtha’s trajectory took an unexpected turn after the death of his adoptive brother, Micipsa. The ensuing succession dispute unraveled long-standing alliances and triggered a chain of events that would culminate in the Jugurthine War.

Numidia’s significance lay not only in its agricultural bounty but also in its strategic position as a buffer between Roman territories and the vast unknown of the Sahara. As Rome sought to extend its dominion, the challenges presented by Numidia mirrored the broader complexities of Roman expansion, where military might collide with local autonomy.

This introduction sets the stage for the exploration of Jugurtha’s life and the Jugurthine War, a saga that weaves together familial strife, political intrigue, and the enduring struggle of a kingdom caught in the crosscurrents of imperial ambitions. Jugurtha’s resistance, rooted in the geopolitical landscape of North Africa, invites us to delve into the intricate narratives of an era where empires clashed, leaving an indelible mark on the historical canvas.

      

      Jugurtha captured - Public domain 

            portrait drawing

Jugurtha’s Early Years: A Royal Heritage and Shifting Alliances :

Jugurtha, born around 160 BC into the royal family of Numidia, experienced a complex journey shaped by both his lineage and the ever-shifting alliances of the time. As a member of the ruling family, Jugurtha’s early life was marked by the intricacies of Numidian court politics and the expectations that came with his royal heritage.

His adoptive father, Micipsa, ruled Numidia and played a crucial role in shaping Jugurtha’s future. However, upon Micipsa’s death, a succession dispute erupted, unraveling the stability within the Numidian royal household. This dispute would set the stage for Jugurtha’s strained relationship with Rome and his subsequent defiance.

Alliance with Rome: A Strategic Partnership Unraveling :

Jugurtha’s early alliance with Rome proved pivotal in shaping the trajectory of his political career. Initially fostered by positive relations, Jugurtha found himself amid Roman politics, forming connections with influential figures. His adoptive Father the king Micipsa, recognizing the importance of maintaining good ties with Rome, facilitated Jugurtha’s involvement with the Roman military.

Military Service in the Roman Army: Loyalty Tested and Allegations Arise :

Jugurtha’s military service in the Roman army marked a period of apparent collaboration between Numidia and Rome. He actively participated in Roman campaigns, earning a reputation for his military skills and strategic acumen. However, this alliance would soon unravel as the complexities of Numidian succession fueled internal strife.

Following Micipsa’s death, Jugurtha, sensing Roman interference in the succession process, began to question the loyalty of Roman officials. As his adoptive brother’s heir, Jugurtha found himself embroiled in a succession dispute that not only strained his relationship with Rome but also laid the foundation for his later resistance against the expanding Republic.

Jugurtha’s early experiences, deeply intertwined with his royal background and alliance with Rome, set the stage for a tumultuous period in North African history. The complexities of family dynamics, succession disputes, and shifting allegiances would propel Jugurtha into a central role, ultimately challenging the might of Rome in the Jugurthine War.

Succession Dispute: Turmoil in Numidia :

The death of Micipsa, Jugurtha’s adoptive brother and the ruler of Numidia, ignited a succession dispute that would unravel the political stability within the kingdom. Micipsa, mindful of the challenges inherent in dividing his kingdom among his two natural sons and Jugurtha, opted for a joint rule. However, this arrangement proved untenable, leading to a power struggle among the heirs.

Upon Micipsa’s demise, Jugurtha, Adherbal, and Hiempsal found themselves thrust into a contentious co-rule. The inherent tensions escalated, fueled by longstanding rivalries and the strategic positioning of Numidia in the crosshairs of Roman influence. The Roman Senate, attempting to assert control over Numidian affairs, exacerbated the discord by supporting Jugurtha’s rivals.

In a bid to consolidate power, Jugurtha sought Roman intervention to arbitrate the dispute. This move, however, proved to be a double-edged sword as it exposed him to the intricate web of Roman politics and set in motion a series of events that would lead to his accusations of corruption against Roman officials.

Jugurtha’s Accusations of Corruption: Unveiling Roman Intrigue :

Jugurtha’s plea for Roman arbitration in the succession dispute was met with a response that would shape the course of history. Roman officials, notably Gaius Memmius and Lucius Cassius presided over the proceedings. However, Jugurtha quickly realized that the Roman intervention was not impartial.

Frustrated by what he perceived as biased decisions favoring his rivals, Jugurtha made a daring move by accusing Roman officials of corruption. He alleged that key figures, including Memmius and Cassius, had accepted bribes from his rivals to sway the judgment in their favor. These accusations were not merely the result of a disgruntledealing; they laid bare the systemic corruption within the Roman Republic, especially in its dealings with client kingdoms.

Jugurtha’s claims were not baseless. Investigations in Rome revealed a network of bribery and manipulation that compromised the integrity of Roman officials. The revelation of corruption within the highest echelons of Roman governance had far-reaching consequences, tarnishing the reputation of the Republic and deepening the animosity between Jugurtha and Rome.

The succession dispute and corruption allegations served es to warfare in unfamiliar terrains. The Jugurthine War serves as a historical testament to the efficacy of unconventional strategies against a formidable military power, leaving a lasting impact on Roman military doctrines and influencing subsequent conflicts in ancient history.

Internal Betrayals: Erosion of Jugurtha’s Power Base :

Jugurtha’s reign was marked by not only external conflicts but also internal betrayals that significantly weakened his position. The succession dispute following Micipsa’s death had sown seeds of discord within the Numidian royal family. Factions emerged, fueled by ambitions and grievances, leading to treachery among Jugurtha’s kin.

His adoptive brother’s natural sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, sided with Rome, drawn by promises of support and power. This familial betrayal fractured Jugurtha’s internal alliances, leaving him vulnerable to both external and internal adversaries. The erosion of loyalty within his camp weakened his ability to withstand the Roman onslaught.

Circumstances Leading to Capture and Execution :

As the Jugurthine War unfolded, Jugurtha’s military brilliance and resilience prolonged the conflict, but internal divisions proved decisive. Jugurtha faced a crucial turning point when his erstwhile ally, King Bocchus of Mauretania, switched allegiance and collaborated with the Romans.

This betrayal exposed Jugurtha to a multi-pronged assault. Encircled by Roman forces and abandoned by once-loyal allies, Jugurtha’s military options dwindled. The Romans, led by Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla, skillfully exploited the internal disarray, forcing Jugurtha into a precarious position.

In 105 BC, Jugurtha, realizing the futility of continued resistance, surrendered to the Romans. His brother-in-law, the king Bocchus, who turned against him, delivered him to Rome His capture marked the culmination of a complex web of betrayals—both familial and political—that had undermined his once-formidable reign. The circumstances surrounding Jugurtha’s fall reflected the intricate dynamics of power, shifting allegiances, and the brutal realities of ancient geopolitics.

Jugurtha’s fate was sealed as he was paraded through Rome in a triumphal procession. Subsequently, he faced execution, a stark reminder of the consequences of challenging Rome’s authority. The internal betrayals, coupled with external alliances turned against him, led to Jugurtha’s downfall, concluding a chapter in Roman history that showcased the intricate interplay of loyalty and treachery in the pursuit and defense of power.

Jugurtha’s Legacy: Echoes of Defiance in Roman History :

Jugurtha’s resistance against Roman expansion and the subsequent Jugurthine War left an enduring legacy that reverberated through the annals of Roman history. His defiance and the geopolitical implications of the conflict had far-reaching consequences, shaping narratives and policies in the Roman Republic.

Jugurtha’s legacy is intertwined with the challenges Rome faced in maintaining control over its vast territories. His ability to exploit internal Roman corruption and resist assimilation became a cautionary tale for future client kings and provinces. The Jugurthine War exposed the moral ambiguities within the Roman Republic’s governance, revealing the corrosive effects of corruption on foreign relations.

The conflict also influenced Roman military strategies. Jugurtha’s adept use of guerrilla warfare and unconventional tactics against the more traditional Roman legions prompted a reevaluation of military doctrines. The lessons learned from facing an adversary like Jugurtha contributed to the evolution of Roman military thinking, particularly in dealing with decentralized, resistant territories.

Historically, Jugurtha’s name became synonymous with resistance against imperial power. His story, immortalized in works such as Sallust’s « The Jugurthine War, » provided later historians with a lens through which to analyze the complexities of Roman expansionism and the internal challenges of governance.

Furthermore, Jugurtha’s fate served as a stark reminder of the consequences of challenging Rome. His capture paraded through the streets of Rome, and subsequent execution underscored the ruthlessness of Roman authority and the high stakes of resistance. This left an indelible mark on the collective consciousness of both Romans and their subjects.

In the broader context of Roman history, Jugurtha’s legacy resonates as a symbol of defiance against an expanding empire, offering insights into the delicate balance between imperial ambitions and the challenges of governing diverse territories. His story remains a testament to the enduring struggle for autonomy against dominant powers—a theme that transcends the boundaries of time and continues to captivate the imagination of those who delve into the intricacies of ancient history.

Until today, Jugurtha remains a revered figure in Amazigh folklore, whether in Algeria or Tunisia. He is celebrated as one of the great leaders and revolutionaries who defied one of the largest and mightiest armies of their time, the Roman legions. Some songs, poems, and oral narratives continue to immortalize the memory of this rebellious Numidian leader, who sought to unify his people and resist Roman domination.

Historiographical Perspectives on Jugurtha: Sallust and Beyond :

The portrayal of Jugurtha in historical works, notably by Sallust in « The Jugurthine War, » offers a nuanced lens through which scholars have interpreted the complex character and actions of this Numidian king. Sallust, a Roman historian of the 1st century BC, provides a vivid account that shapes much of our understanding of Jugurtha.

Sallust’s depiction of Jugurtha is multifaceted. While acknowledging Jugurtha’s military prowess and political acumen, Sallust presents him as a cunning and ruthless figure. Jugurtha’s accusations of Roman corruption are explored, but Sallust also highlights the complexities of Numidian politics and the betrayals that weakened Jugurtha’s position.

Differing interpretations of Jugurtha’s character have emerged over the centuries. Some historians, influenced by the biases of their respective eras, cast Jugurtha as a heroic figure resisting Roman oppression. They emphasize his efforts to maintain Numidian sovereignty and downplay any negative aspects of his reign.

Conversely, others view Jugurtha through a more critical lens, emphasizing his opportunism, betrayal of family members, and manipulation of alliances for personal gain. Such perspectives often highlight the challenges he posed to Roman authority but also underscore the pragmatic and sometimes ruthless nature of his actions.

In modern historiography, Jugurtha’s character continues to be subject to reinterpretation. Scholars delve into the complexities of Roman-North African relations, the dynamics of Numidian succession, and the broader geopolitical context to offer nuanced perspectives on Jugurtha’s motivations and the implications of his resistance.

The historiographical discourse surrounding Jugurtha reflects the evolving nature of historical analysis. Each era brings forth new questions and perspectives, shaping the narrative of Jugurtha’s legacy. Whether viewed as a defiant leader challenging imperial hegemony or a shrewd opportunist navigating the complexities of power, Jugurtha’s historical portrayal remains a dynamic subject, allowing for ongoing exploration and reinterpretation.

Conclusion :

In conclusion, this exploration of Jugurtha’s life and the Jugurthine War reveals a multifaceted narrative that transcends a mere conflict between Numidia and Rome. Jugurtha’s defiance, driven by internal betrayals, corruption allegations, and military brilliance, left an indelible mark on Roman history. The succession dispute and corruption scandals exposed the vulnerabilities within the Roman Republic, reshaping its approach to governance and military strategy.

Jugurtha’s legacy extends beyond the battlefield; he became a symbol of resistance against imperial powers and a cautionary tale of the pitfalls of unchecked expansion. His story, as captured by historians like Sallust, offers a rich tapestry of geopolitical intricacies, familial conflicts, and the clash between local autonomy and imperial ambition. Jugurtha’s place in Roman history serves as a poignant reminder of the challenges inherent in maintaining control over vast territories and the enduring struggle for autonomy in the face of dominant powers. His reign echoes through the ages, continuing to captivate scholars and enthusiasts alike as they unravel the complexities of ancient geopolitics and the lasting consequences of defiance against imperial might.

Bibliography :

• Sallust. « The Jugurthine War. » Translated by A. J. Woodman. Penguin Classics, 2007.
• Rosenstein, Nathan S. « Imperatores Victi: Military Defeat and Aristocratic Competition in the Middle and Late Republic. » University of California Press, 1990.
• Gruen, Erich S. « The Jugurthine War. » University of California Press, 1974.
• Roller, Duane W. « Through the Pillars of Herakles: Greco-Roman Exploration of the Atlantic. » Routledge, 2006.
• Hoyos, Dexter. « Unplanned Wars: The Origins of the First and Second Punic Wars. » Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1998.
• Fronda, Michael P. « Between Rome and Carthage: Southern Italy during the Second Punic War. » Cambridge University Press, 2010.
• Taylor, Lily Ross. « Party Politics in the Age of Caesar. » University of California Press, 1949.
• Badian, Ernst. « Foreign Clientelae (264–70 B.C.). » Oxford University Press, 1958.
• Eckstein, Arthur M. « Senate and General: Individual Decision Making and Roman Foreign Relations, 264–194 B.C. » University of California Press, 1987.
• Goldsworthy, Adrian. « The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC. » Cassell, 2006.
• Lintott, Andrew. « Imperium Romanum: Politics and Administration. » Routledge, 1993.

The Feline Monarch: Exploring the Cultural Significance of Cats in Ancient Egypt

 

Introduction:

Ancient Egypt, with its rich tapestry of mythology and symbolism, held a unique reverence for the feline species, most notably manifested in the concept of the "Cat King." This article delves into the cultural significance, religious symbolism, and societal role of cats in ancient Egyptian civilization.

Egyptian - Statuette of a Standing Bastet - Walters 54408 - PICRYL ...( Public domain)

Historical Context:

In ancient Egypt, cats were not merely domestic animals but were elevated to sacred status, symbolizing qualities such as protection, fertility, and mystery. The reverence for cats reached its zenith during the New Kingdom period (1550–1070 BCE), where feline deities such as Bastet became integral to the Egyptian pantheon.

Bastet, the Feline Deity:

Bastet, a feline goddess of ancient Egyptian religion who was worshipped at least since the Second Dynasty, Neues Museum, Berlin  | Flickr

The most prominent figure associated with the concept of the "Cat King" is Bastet, a goddess often depicted with the head of a lioness or as a domestic cat. Bastet was a multifaceted deity, embodying aspects of home, fertility, protection, and warfare. As the daughter of Ra, the sun god, Bastet's association with the solar disc further elevated her status among the divine.

Cultural Symbolism:

Cats were not only revered in religious contexts but also held a significant place in everyday Egyptian life. They were often kept as household pets, believed to bring good fortune and protect homes from evil spirits. Their graceful and agile nature led to the association of cats with the cosmic order, symbolizing balance and harmony.

Cat Burials and Mummies:

Egyptian Mummified Cats by FoxStox on DeviantArt

The importance of cats in ancient Egypt is further underscored by the discovery of elaborate cat burials and mummies. Cats were often mummified and buried with their owners, emphasizing the belief in an afterlife where these revered animals played a protective role for their human companions.

Societal Impact:

The cultural significance of cats extended beyond religious and symbolic realms into the fabric of Egyptian society. Killing a cat, even accidentally, was considered a grave offense, punishable by law. The penalty for causing harm to a cat, intentionally or not, reflected the deep respect Egyptians had for these animals.

Conclusion:

In the realm of ancient Egyptian culture, the concept of the "Cat King" is best embodied by the feline deity Bastet and the widespread reverence for cats. These enigmatic creatures transcended the role of mere companions to become symbols of divinity, protection, and prosperity. The echoes of this reverence for cats continue to resonate through the annals of Egyptian history, leaving an indelible paw print on the sands of time.

Bibliography :

1. Baines, John. "Religious Thought in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice." Cambridge University Press, 1991.
2. Bleeker, C. J. "Hathor and Thoth: Two Key Figures of the Ancient Egyptian Religion." Brill, 1973.
3. Dunand, Françoise, and Christiane Zivie-Coche. "Gods and Men in Egypt: 3000 BCE to 395 CE." Cornell University Press, 2004.
4. Ikram, Salima. "Divine Creatures: Animal Mummies in Ancient Egypt." American University in Cairo Press, 2005.
5. Pinch, Geraldine. "Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt." Oxford University Press, 2004.
6. Quirke, Stephen. "Ancient Egyptian Religion." British Museum Press, 1992.

The Great Strife « Al-Fitna Al-Kubra »: The First Political Conflicts in Islam

 

Introduction :

The early years of Islam were marked by a series of significant events, among them the tumultuous period known as the « Great Strife » or « Al-Fitna Al-Kubra » This era, occurring shortly after the death of Prophet Muhammad, was characterized by political, social, and religious challenges that profoundly shaped the course of Islamic history.

The Battle of Karbala

Created by Abbas Al-Musawi/ Brooklyn Museum.

Licensable: Public domain

Historical Context :

The Great Strife or Fitna unfolded in the 7th century, primarily during the caliphates of the first four successors (caliphs) known as the Rashidun Caliphs. Despite the unity established under the leadership of Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali, underlying tensions and power struggles emerged, leading to a series of conflicts that would leave a lasting impact on the Muslim community.

Causes of the Great Strife :

Leadership Succession :

The immediate cause of the Great Strife was the question of leadership succession following the death of Prophet Muhammad. While Abu Bakr was chosen as the first caliph, disagreements arose regarding the method of selection, contributing to divisions among Muslims.

Social and Economic Discontent :

Economic disparities and regional grievances added fuel to the fire. Some factions felt marginalized or overlooked in matters of governance and distribution of resources, leading to simmering discontent.

Religious Ideology :

Differences in the interpretation of religious doctrines, especially concerning the role of leadership and governance, played a crucial role in exacerbating the strife. These theological disputes further polarized the Muslim community.

Key Events :

The Fitnah of the killing of Uthman, also known as the Great Fitnah or the Great Strife, was a series of disturbances and conflicts that led to the assassination of Caliph Uthman ibn Affan in the year 35 AH. It resulted in ongoing disputes and wars throughout the caliphate of Ali ibn Abi Talib.

The impact of the Great Strife was significant, redirecting the course of Islamic history. It marked the first interruption of conquests, leading Muslims to engage in internal conflicts. It initiated sectarian strife among Muslims, giving rise to the emergence of the Kharijites. Consequently, the Islamic community became divided into various sects, including Sunni and Shia, among others. One of the notable outcomes was the end of the era of the Rashidun Caliphate and the rise of the Umayyad state, marking the beginning of the hereditary caliphate.

Uthman ibn Affan: The Third Guided Caliph :

Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, was martyred on the 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah, 35 AH. His leadership began after the assassination of Umar ibn al-Khattab. Uthman faced challenges during his caliphate, leading to conflicts that persisted during the rule of Ali ibn Abi Talib.

Genesis of Conflict in Uthman’s Caliphate :

The conflict in Uthman’s caliphate started when he changed governors in important cities, contrary to the practice of Umar, who advised against such changes within the first year after his death. Uthman’s decisions sparked discontent, and a group of companions approached him to voice their concerns, but he did not yield.

Uthman sought counsel from figures like Muawiyah, Abdullah ibn Abi Sarh, Abdullah ibn Amir, and Sa’id ibn al-‘As. He followed the advice of Abdullah ibn Amir, focusing on military conquests to divert attention from internal conflicts.

Siege and Assassination of Uthman :

As the fifth year of Uthman’s caliphate unfolded, unrest in Kufa led to demands for his resignation. Despite pressure, Uthman refused, leading to a siege at his residence. On the 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah, 35 AH, rebels killed Uthman, marking the end of his caliphate. Ali ibn Abi Talib succeeded him as the caliph.

The aftermath saw Ali’s ascension to the caliphate, initially facing reluctance. Ali moved the capital to Kufa and sought to delay retribution until stability in Medina was restored. Conflicting opinions on immediate retribution for Uthman’s killers emerged, leading to the Battle of the Camel and later the Battle of Siffin.

Battles and Arbitration :

The Battle of the Al-Jamal (the Camel) involved Aisha, Talha, and Zubair opposing Ali. Meanwhile, the key figure in the conflict, Muawiyah, considered himself the avenger of Uthman’s blood due to his Umayyad lineage. The Battle of the Camel concluded, but the issue with Muawiyah persisted.

Subsequently, the Battle of Siffin occurred in Muharram, 37 AH, as Ali aimed to remove Muawiyah from the governorship of Damascus. The conflict reached a point of arbitration, which Ali accepted, but a faction opposed this decision, leading to the emergence of the Kharijites.

The emergence of the Kharijites :

The Kharijites, dissenting from Ali’s acceptance of arbitration, split into factions after their defeat at the Battle of Nahrawan in 38 AH. The internal strife continued, culminating in the assassination of Ali in 40 AH during his morning prayer by two Kharijites.

The result of the Strife :

This turbulent period in Islamic history had lasting effects, shaping the development of Sunni and Shia sects, and marking the emergence of the Umayyad Caliphate.

Consequences and Legacy :

The consequences of the Great Strife were profound and far-reaching, shaping the course of Islamic history in ways that continue to influence the Muslim world today.

Emergence of Sunni and Shia Divide :

One of the most enduring legacies of the Great Strife is the schism between Sunni and Shia Islam. The conflict laid the groundwork for the division, with differing views on the rightful succession of leadership after Prophet Muhammad. Sunni Muslims uphold the legitimacy of the early caliphs, while Shia Muslims believe in the divinely appointed leadership of Ali and his descendants.

Theological and Juridical Developments :

The disputes during the Great Strife led to the development of distinct theological and juridical traditions within Islam. Schools of thought such as Sunni Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali, as well as Shia branches like Twelver and Ismaili, emerged in response to differing interpretations of Islamic teachings and legal principles.

Regional and Political Impacts :

The conflicts and power struggles during the Great Strife had lasting geopolitical consequences. The Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, which followed the Rashidun Caliphs, marked significant shifts in Islamic governance. The Umayyads, particularly, established a hereditary system of rule that shaped the political landscape for centuries.

Cultural and Intellectual Developments :

Despite the discord, the Great Strife period also witnessed significant cultural and intellectual advancements. Islamic scholars sought to preserve and codify the teachings of Islam, leading to the compilation of the Quran and the collection of Hadiths. The preservation of knowledge became a hallmark of Islamic civilization, influencing disciplines such as philosophy, science, and literature.

Perspectives :

To understand this complex historical episode, it is essential to explore perspectives from both Arabic-Muslim and Western historians.

Arabic-Muslim Historians’ Perspectives :

• Ibn Ishaq :

   Ibn Ishaq, an early biographer of Prophet Muhammad, offers a detailed account of the Great Strife in his seminal work, « Sirat Rasul Allah. » He emphasizes the leadership dispute between Ali ibn Abi Talib and the Umayyad Caliphate, shedding light on the socio-political dynamics that fueled the conflict.

• Ibn Khaldun :

   The renowned Arab historian Ibn Khaldun, in his « Muqaddimah, » provides a sociological analysis of the Great Strife. He explores the tribal rivalries, economic factors, and power struggles that contributed to the fragmentation of the early Muslim community.

• Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani :

   A medieval Egyptian scholar, Ibn Hajar is renowned for his « al-Isabah fi Tamyiz al-Sahabah, » which provides biographical information about the companions of Prophet Muhammad. His work offers insights into the key figures involved in the Great Strife.

• Ibn Taymiyyah :

   Ibn Taymiyyah, a medieval Islamic scholar, has left an extensive body of work. His perspectives, often characterized by a strict adherence to Sunni orthodoxy, may shed light on the theological aspects of the Great Strife.

• Ibn Qutaybah :

   Ibn Qutaybah’s « Al-Imamah wa al-Siyasah » explores political leadership and governance in early Islamic history. His insights can contribute to understanding the political dimensions of the Great Strife.

• Ibn Hazm :

   A polymath from Muslim Spain, Ibn Hazm’s work « Jamharat Ansab al-‘Arab » touches on genealogical aspects. His writings may provide a context for the tribal dynamics during the Great Strife.

• Ibn Kathir :

   Ibn Kathir’s « Al-Bidaya wa’l-Nihaya » is a comprehensive historical work covering the early history of Islam. His account of the Great Strife includes details on events, key personalities, and their interactions.

• Ibn al-Jawzi :

   Ibn al-Jawzi’s « Al-Muntazam fi Tarikh al-Muluk wa’l-Umam » offers a historical chronicle with a focus on political events. His writings could provide a political and social backdrop to the Great Strife.

• Al-Maqrizi :

   Al-Maqrizi’s « Al-Khitat » is an extensive historical work that covers various aspects of Islamic history. His writings may offer insights into the societal and economic conditions during the time of the Great Strife.

•  Al-Idrisi :

Al-Idrisi’s historical works, such as « Al-Sila » and « Al-Nuzhat al-Mushtaq, » delve into the political and cultural milieu of the early Islamic period. His perspectives may offer unique insights into the dynamics of the Great Strife.

• Al-Tabari :

   Al-Tabari’s « History of the Prophets and Kings » serves as a comprehensive chronicle of the events surrounding the Great Strife. He offers diverse perspectives on the leaders involved and the theological divergences that intensified the conflict.

 Modern Arabic historiography :

• Abd al-Aziz al-Duri :

   Al-Duri, in his work on early Islamic history, provides insights into the socio-political aspects of the Great Strife. His emphasis on contextualizing the events within the broader framework of Arabian tribal dynamics contributes to a nuanced understanding.

• Abd al-Rahman Azzam :

   Azzam’s historical analyses often delve into the ideological dimensions of the Great Strife, exploring how theological differences played a role in shaping the early Islamic political landscape. His work sheds light on the religious underpinnings of the conflict.

• Nawal al-Maadawi :

   Al-Maadawi, known for her contributions to Islamic historiography, offers perspectives on the role of women during the Great Strife. Examining the impact of political upheavals on the status of women provides a unique angle to understanding the broader societal implications.

• Saad Eddin Ibrahim :

   Ibrahim, with a focus on political and institutional developments, provides insights into the aftermath of the Great Strife. His analyses may shed light on how the outcomes of this historical period influenced the subsequent structures of Islamic governance.

• Hisham al-Khali :

   Al-Khali’s work often explores the interplay between economic factors and political events in early Islamic history. Including his perspective in the article could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the socio-economic dynamics during the Great Strife.

• Mohamed Talbi :

   Talbi, a Tunisian historian, has contributed extensively to the study of early Islamic history. His perspectives on the Great Strife may offer insights into the socio-political dynamics and the implications for the development of Islamic governance.

Malika Hachid :

   As an Algerian historian, Hachid’s work often explores the role of women in Islamic history. Including her perspective could illuminate how the Great Strife impacted and was influenced by the experiences of women during that time.

• Rifaat Ebied :

   Ebied, an Egyptian historian, has focused on various aspects of early Islamic history. His insights may provide a nuanced understanding of the religious and theological dimensions of the Great Strife.

• Muhammad Arkoun :

   Arkoun, an Algerian scholar, was known for his contributions to Islamic philosophy and history. His views may provide a philosophical lens through which to analyze the intellectual currents during the Great Strife.

• Fatema Mernissi :

   Mernissi, a Moroccan sociologist and historian, has written extensively on the role of women in Islamic societies. Her perspective could offer valuable insights into the social dynamics and gender relations during the Great Strife.

• Hichem Djait :

 Tunisian historian and philosopher. In his book « The Great Strife: Religion and Politics at the Origins of Islam », Djaiet gave the secrets of the political conflict during the Great Conflict and its most important events. What distinguishes this book is the analytical and anthropological reading which gives it great objectivity. It also contains great criticism of Western orientalists.

Western Historians’ Perspectives :

• Patricia Crone :

   Patricia Crone, in her work « Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam, » challenges traditional narratives surrounding the Great Strife. She explores economic factors and contends that the conflict may have been more influenced by tribal and economic considerations than religious ideology.

• Julius Wellhausen :

Was a German biblical scholar and orientalist. The author of “The Kharijites and the Shiites” studied among them the most important sects that were the product of the Great Strife and is considered one of the most important historians and orientalists who were interested in studying Islam and Arab civilization.

• Bernard Lewis :

   Bernard Lewis, a prominent scholar of Middle Eastern history, in « The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years, » provides insights into the geopolitical consequences of the Great Strife. He examines how the schism affected the broader Muslim world and its relations with neighboring civilizations.

• Fred Donner :

   Fred Donner, in « The Early Islamic Conquests, » focuses on the early expansion of Islam and the political fissures that emerged during the Great Strife. His analysis delves into the military and strategic dimensions of the conflict.

• Montgomery Watt :

   A Scottish historian, Watt’s « Muhammad at Medina » and « Muhammad at Mecca » provide insightful analyses of early Islamic history. His nuanced approach may offer perspectives on the political and social dynamics during the Great Strife.

• Karen Armstrong :

   A British author and historian of religion, Armstrong’s works, such as « Islam: A Short History » or « Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time, » offer accessible insights into the broader historical context of early Islam, including the Great Strife.

• John Esposito :

   An American scholar, Esposito’s « Islam: The Straight Path » and « The Oxford History of Islam » provide overviews of Islamic history. His approach may offer a contemporary and accessible perspective on the impact of the Great Strife.

• Patricia Crone and Michael Cook :

   Both scholars have collaborated on works like « Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World, » challenging traditional narratives. Their critical analysis may provide alternative viewpoints on the early Islamic political landscape.

• Robert Hoyland :

   Hoyland’s work, such as « In God’s Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire, » focuses on the early Islamic expansion. His insights may contribute to understanding the broader historical context of the Great Strife.

• Jonathan Berkey :

   Berkey’s « The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800 » explores the early centuries of Islam. His historical analysis may offer a broader context for the events leading to the Great Strife.

The Great Strife remains a critical chapter in Islamic history, shaping the trajectory of political and religious developments. The perspectives of both Arabic-Muslim and Western historians offer a nuanced understanding of the multifaceted factors that contributed to this seminal event, highlighting the intersection of religious, political, and socio-economic dynamics.

 Conclusion :

In conclusion, the Great Strife in early Islamic history remains a pivotal and complex period that shaped the diverse tapestry of the Muslim world. Its consequences, from the emergence of Sunni and Shia Islam to the cultural and intellectual developments, continue to influence the contemporary Muslim landscape. Understanding the intricacies of this historical chapter is crucial for grasping the diversity and resilience of Islamic civilization.