The Great Strife « Al-Fitna Al-Kubra »: The First Political Conflicts in Islam

 

Introduction :

The early years of Islam were marked by a series of significant events, among them the tumultuous period known as the « Great Strife » or « Al-Fitna Al-Kubra » This era, occurring shortly after the death of Prophet Muhammad, was characterized by political, social, and religious challenges that profoundly shaped the course of Islamic history.

The Battle of Karbala

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Historical Context :

The Great Strife or Fitna unfolded in the 7th century, primarily during the caliphates of the first four successors (caliphs) known as the Rashidun Caliphs. Despite the unity established under the leadership of Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali, underlying tensions and power struggles emerged, leading to a series of conflicts that would leave a lasting impact on the Muslim community.

Causes of the Great Strife :

Leadership Succession :

The immediate cause of the Great Strife was the question of leadership succession following the death of Prophet Muhammad. While Abu Bakr was chosen as the first caliph, disagreements arose regarding the method of selection, contributing to divisions among Muslims.

Social and Economic Discontent :

Economic disparities and regional grievances added fuel to the fire. Some factions felt marginalized or overlooked in matters of governance and distribution of resources, leading to simmering discontent.

Religious Ideology :

Differences in the interpretation of religious doctrines, especially concerning the role of leadership and governance, played a crucial role in exacerbating the strife. These theological disputes further polarized the Muslim community.

Key Events :

The Fitnah of the killing of Uthman, also known as the Great Fitnah or the Great Strife, was a series of disturbances and conflicts that led to the assassination of Caliph Uthman ibn Affan in the year 35 AH. It resulted in ongoing disputes and wars throughout the caliphate of Ali ibn Abi Talib.

The impact of the Great Strife was significant, redirecting the course of Islamic history. It marked the first interruption of conquests, leading Muslims to engage in internal conflicts. It initiated sectarian strife among Muslims, giving rise to the emergence of the Kharijites. Consequently, the Islamic community became divided into various sects, including Sunni and Shia, among others. One of the notable outcomes was the end of the era of the Rashidun Caliphate and the rise of the Umayyad state, marking the beginning of the hereditary caliphate.

Uthman ibn Affan: The Third Guided Caliph :

Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, was martyred on the 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah, 35 AH. His leadership began after the assassination of Umar ibn al-Khattab. Uthman faced challenges during his caliphate, leading to conflicts that persisted during the rule of Ali ibn Abi Talib.

Genesis of Conflict in Uthman’s Caliphate :

The conflict in Uthman’s caliphate started when he changed governors in important cities, contrary to the practice of Umar, who advised against such changes within the first year after his death. Uthman’s decisions sparked discontent, and a group of companions approached him to voice their concerns, but he did not yield.

Uthman sought counsel from figures like Muawiyah, Abdullah ibn Abi Sarh, Abdullah ibn Amir, and Sa’id ibn al-‘As. He followed the advice of Abdullah ibn Amir, focusing on military conquests to divert attention from internal conflicts.

Siege and Assassination of Uthman :

As the fifth year of Uthman’s caliphate unfolded, unrest in Kufa led to demands for his resignation. Despite pressure, Uthman refused, leading to a siege at his residence. On the 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah, 35 AH, rebels killed Uthman, marking the end of his caliphate. Ali ibn Abi Talib succeeded him as the caliph.

The aftermath saw Ali’s ascension to the caliphate, initially facing reluctance. Ali moved the capital to Kufa and sought to delay retribution until stability in Medina was restored. Conflicting opinions on immediate retribution for Uthman’s killers emerged, leading to the Battle of the Camel and later the Battle of Siffin.

Battles and Arbitration :

The Battle of the Al-Jamal (the Camel) involved Aisha, Talha, and Zubair opposing Ali. Meanwhile, the key figure in the conflict, Muawiyah, considered himself the avenger of Uthman’s blood due to his Umayyad lineage. The Battle of the Camel concluded, but the issue with Muawiyah persisted.

Subsequently, the Battle of Siffin occurred in Muharram, 37 AH, as Ali aimed to remove Muawiyah from the governorship of Damascus. The conflict reached a point of arbitration, which Ali accepted, but a faction opposed this decision, leading to the emergence of the Kharijites.

The emergence of the Kharijites :

The Kharijites, dissenting from Ali’s acceptance of arbitration, split into factions after their defeat at the Battle of Nahrawan in 38 AH. The internal strife continued, culminating in the assassination of Ali in 40 AH during his morning prayer by two Kharijites.

The result of the Strife :

This turbulent period in Islamic history had lasting effects, shaping the development of Sunni and Shia sects, and marking the emergence of the Umayyad Caliphate.

Consequences and Legacy :

The consequences of the Great Strife were profound and far-reaching, shaping the course of Islamic history in ways that continue to influence the Muslim world today.

Emergence of Sunni and Shia Divide :

One of the most enduring legacies of the Great Strife is the schism between Sunni and Shia Islam. The conflict laid the groundwork for the division, with differing views on the rightful succession of leadership after Prophet Muhammad. Sunni Muslims uphold the legitimacy of the early caliphs, while Shia Muslims believe in the divinely appointed leadership of Ali and his descendants.

Theological and Juridical Developments :

The disputes during the Great Strife led to the development of distinct theological and juridical traditions within Islam. Schools of thought such as Sunni Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali, as well as Shia branches like Twelver and Ismaili, emerged in response to differing interpretations of Islamic teachings and legal principles.

Regional and Political Impacts :

The conflicts and power struggles during the Great Strife had lasting geopolitical consequences. The Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, which followed the Rashidun Caliphs, marked significant shifts in Islamic governance. The Umayyads, particularly, established a hereditary system of rule that shaped the political landscape for centuries.

Cultural and Intellectual Developments :

Despite the discord, the Great Strife period also witnessed significant cultural and intellectual advancements. Islamic scholars sought to preserve and codify the teachings of Islam, leading to the compilation of the Quran and the collection of Hadiths. The preservation of knowledge became a hallmark of Islamic civilization, influencing disciplines such as philosophy, science, and literature.

Perspectives :

To understand this complex historical episode, it is essential to explore perspectives from both Arabic-Muslim and Western historians.

Arabic-Muslim Historians’ Perspectives :

• Ibn Ishaq :

   Ibn Ishaq, an early biographer of Prophet Muhammad, offers a detailed account of the Great Strife in his seminal work, « Sirat Rasul Allah. » He emphasizes the leadership dispute between Ali ibn Abi Talib and the Umayyad Caliphate, shedding light on the socio-political dynamics that fueled the conflict.

• Ibn Khaldun :

   The renowned Arab historian Ibn Khaldun, in his « Muqaddimah, » provides a sociological analysis of the Great Strife. He explores the tribal rivalries, economic factors, and power struggles that contributed to the fragmentation of the early Muslim community.

• Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani :

   A medieval Egyptian scholar, Ibn Hajar is renowned for his « al-Isabah fi Tamyiz al-Sahabah, » which provides biographical information about the companions of Prophet Muhammad. His work offers insights into the key figures involved in the Great Strife.

• Ibn Taymiyyah :

   Ibn Taymiyyah, a medieval Islamic scholar, has left an extensive body of work. His perspectives, often characterized by a strict adherence to Sunni orthodoxy, may shed light on the theological aspects of the Great Strife.

• Ibn Qutaybah :

   Ibn Qutaybah’s « Al-Imamah wa al-Siyasah » explores political leadership and governance in early Islamic history. His insights can contribute to understanding the political dimensions of the Great Strife.

• Ibn Hazm :

   A polymath from Muslim Spain, Ibn Hazm’s work « Jamharat Ansab al-‘Arab » touches on genealogical aspects. His writings may provide a context for the tribal dynamics during the Great Strife.

• Ibn Kathir :

   Ibn Kathir’s « Al-Bidaya wa’l-Nihaya » is a comprehensive historical work covering the early history of Islam. His account of the Great Strife includes details on events, key personalities, and their interactions.

• Ibn al-Jawzi :

   Ibn al-Jawzi’s « Al-Muntazam fi Tarikh al-Muluk wa’l-Umam » offers a historical chronicle with a focus on political events. His writings could provide a political and social backdrop to the Great Strife.

• Al-Maqrizi :

   Al-Maqrizi’s « Al-Khitat » is an extensive historical work that covers various aspects of Islamic history. His writings may offer insights into the societal and economic conditions during the time of the Great Strife.

•  Al-Idrisi :

Al-Idrisi’s historical works, such as « Al-Sila » and « Al-Nuzhat al-Mushtaq, » delve into the political and cultural milieu of the early Islamic period. His perspectives may offer unique insights into the dynamics of the Great Strife.

• Al-Tabari :

   Al-Tabari’s « History of the Prophets and Kings » serves as a comprehensive chronicle of the events surrounding the Great Strife. He offers diverse perspectives on the leaders involved and the theological divergences that intensified the conflict.

 Modern Arabic historiography :

• Abd al-Aziz al-Duri :

   Al-Duri, in his work on early Islamic history, provides insights into the socio-political aspects of the Great Strife. His emphasis on contextualizing the events within the broader framework of Arabian tribal dynamics contributes to a nuanced understanding.

• Abd al-Rahman Azzam :

   Azzam’s historical analyses often delve into the ideological dimensions of the Great Strife, exploring how theological differences played a role in shaping the early Islamic political landscape. His work sheds light on the religious underpinnings of the conflict.

• Nawal al-Maadawi :

   Al-Maadawi, known for her contributions to Islamic historiography, offers perspectives on the role of women during the Great Strife. Examining the impact of political upheavals on the status of women provides a unique angle to understanding the broader societal implications.

• Saad Eddin Ibrahim :

   Ibrahim, with a focus on political and institutional developments, provides insights into the aftermath of the Great Strife. His analyses may shed light on how the outcomes of this historical period influenced the subsequent structures of Islamic governance.

• Hisham al-Khali :

   Al-Khali’s work often explores the interplay between economic factors and political events in early Islamic history. Including his perspective in the article could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the socio-economic dynamics during the Great Strife.

• Mohamed Talbi :

   Talbi, a Tunisian historian, has contributed extensively to the study of early Islamic history. His perspectives on the Great Strife may offer insights into the socio-political dynamics and the implications for the development of Islamic governance.

Malika Hachid :

   As an Algerian historian, Hachid’s work often explores the role of women in Islamic history. Including her perspective could illuminate how the Great Strife impacted and was influenced by the experiences of women during that time.

• Rifaat Ebied :

   Ebied, an Egyptian historian, has focused on various aspects of early Islamic history. His insights may provide a nuanced understanding of the religious and theological dimensions of the Great Strife.

• Muhammad Arkoun :

   Arkoun, an Algerian scholar, was known for his contributions to Islamic philosophy and history. His views may provide a philosophical lens through which to analyze the intellectual currents during the Great Strife.

• Fatema Mernissi :

   Mernissi, a Moroccan sociologist and historian, has written extensively on the role of women in Islamic societies. Her perspective could offer valuable insights into the social dynamics and gender relations during the Great Strife.

• Hichem Djait :

 Tunisian historian and philosopher. In his book « The Great Strife: Religion and Politics at the Origins of Islam », Djaiet gave the secrets of the political conflict during the Great Conflict and its most important events. What distinguishes this book is the analytical and anthropological reading which gives it great objectivity. It also contains great criticism of Western orientalists.

Western Historians’ Perspectives :

• Patricia Crone :

   Patricia Crone, in her work « Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam, » challenges traditional narratives surrounding the Great Strife. She explores economic factors and contends that the conflict may have been more influenced by tribal and economic considerations than religious ideology.

• Julius Wellhausen :

Was a German biblical scholar and orientalist. The author of “The Kharijites and the Shiites” studied among them the most important sects that were the product of the Great Strife and is considered one of the most important historians and orientalists who were interested in studying Islam and Arab civilization.

• Bernard Lewis :

   Bernard Lewis, a prominent scholar of Middle Eastern history, in « The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years, » provides insights into the geopolitical consequences of the Great Strife. He examines how the schism affected the broader Muslim world and its relations with neighboring civilizations.

• Fred Donner :

   Fred Donner, in « The Early Islamic Conquests, » focuses on the early expansion of Islam and the political fissures that emerged during the Great Strife. His analysis delves into the military and strategic dimensions of the conflict.

• Montgomery Watt :

   A Scottish historian, Watt’s « Muhammad at Medina » and « Muhammad at Mecca » provide insightful analyses of early Islamic history. His nuanced approach may offer perspectives on the political and social dynamics during the Great Strife.

• Karen Armstrong :

   A British author and historian of religion, Armstrong’s works, such as « Islam: A Short History » or « Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time, » offer accessible insights into the broader historical context of early Islam, including the Great Strife.

• John Esposito :

   An American scholar, Esposito’s « Islam: The Straight Path » and « The Oxford History of Islam » provide overviews of Islamic history. His approach may offer a contemporary and accessible perspective on the impact of the Great Strife.

• Patricia Crone and Michael Cook :

   Both scholars have collaborated on works like « Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World, » challenging traditional narratives. Their critical analysis may provide alternative viewpoints on the early Islamic political landscape.

• Robert Hoyland :

   Hoyland’s work, such as « In God’s Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire, » focuses on the early Islamic expansion. His insights may contribute to understanding the broader historical context of the Great Strife.

• Jonathan Berkey :

   Berkey’s « The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800 » explores the early centuries of Islam. His historical analysis may offer a broader context for the events leading to the Great Strife.

The Great Strife remains a critical chapter in Islamic history, shaping the trajectory of political and religious developments. The perspectives of both Arabic-Muslim and Western historians offer a nuanced understanding of the multifaceted factors that contributed to this seminal event, highlighting the intersection of religious, political, and socio-economic dynamics.

 Conclusion :

In conclusion, the Great Strife in early Islamic history remains a pivotal and complex period that shaped the diverse tapestry of the Muslim world. Its consequences, from the emergence of Sunni and Shia Islam to the cultural and intellectual developments, continue to influence the contemporary Muslim landscape. Understanding the intricacies of this historical chapter is crucial for grasping the diversity and resilience of Islamic civilization.