The Library of Alexandria: The Greatest Mystery of Ancient Knowledge

 

Introduction:

The Library of Alexandria stands as one of the most renowned and fascinating cultural and scientific marvels of antiquity. Located in Alexandria, Egypt—Alexander the Great's vision for a cosmopolitan hub—the library symbolized a bold endeavor to collect and preserve all human knowledge. While its legacy is shrouded in mystery and its destruction lamented as a monumental loss, the Library of Alexandria remains a testament to human curiosity, ambition, and intellectual progress.

The Library of Alexandria, 19th-century artistic rendering by German artist O. Von Corven, based partially on the archaeological evidence. ( Public domain )

Origins and Foundation:

Forschungen in Ephesos", Vol. III, Vienna 1923, p.128. published by Tomisti ( public domain )

Inscription regarding Tiberius Claudius Babillus of Rome (d. 56 CE) which confirms that the Library of Alexandria must have existed in some form in the first century AD.

The foundation of the Library of Alexandria was intrinsically tied to the ambitions of the Ptolemaic dynasty. After Alexander the Great founded Alexandria in 331 BCE, his successor, Ptolemy I Soter, aimed to transform the city into a center of learning and cultural exchange. Inspired by the library in Athens established under Peisistratos and other Greek and Near Eastern traditions, Ptolemy I sought to create a repository of universal knowledge. His vision was later realized under his son, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who oversaw the construction of the Mouseion—a larger research institute dedicated to the nine Muses of Greek mythology, of which the library was a central feature.

Ptolemy II Philadelphus Founds the Library of Alexandria
Vincenzo Camuccini (Public Domain)

The Ambitious Scope:

What set the Library of Alexandria apart from its predecessors was its unparalleled ambition to collect every known text in the world. Ptolemaic rulers implemented aggressive and innovative policies to achieve this mission. Royal agents were dispatched across the Mediterranean and beyond, equipped with substantial funds to purchase texts from authors and collectors. Legend holds that all manuscripts aboard ships docking at Alexandria’s harbor were seized, copied by scribes, and returned—sometimes with the originals retained and the copies returned instead. Estimates of the library's collection vary, with scholars suggesting a range from 40,000 to 400,000 scrolls at its zenith.

Plan of Alexandria c 30 BC Otto Puchstein 1890s. ( public domain)

Knowledge and Innovation: 

The Library of Alexandria not only preserved knowledge but actively fostered intellectual inquiry and innovation. Scholars, poets, mathematicians, and scientists from diverse backgrounds were drawn to Alexandria by the generous patronage of the Ptolemaic court. Resident academics were provided with housing, stipends, and access to vast resources. Key figures associated with the library included:

Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who calculated the Earth's circumference with remarkable accuracy.

Etching of an ancient seal identified as Eratosthenes. Philipp Daniel Lippert [de], Dactyliothec, 1767. ( Public domain )

Archimedes, whose "Archimedes' screw" revolutionized engineering and agriculture.

Illustration représentant Archimède

Dr. Manuel (CC BY-SA)

Callimachus, who created the Pinakes, an early bibliographic catalog organizing works by subject and author.

Portrait of Callimachus, Wiliam Henry Toms, 1755 ( public domain )

Aristarchus of Samos, who proposed a heliocentric model centuries before Copernicus.

Aristarchos of Samos, monument Aristotle University of Thessaloniki/Greece, Dr. Manuel (CC BY-SA)

Through its lecture halls, gardens, and dining spaces, the Mouseion resembled a modern university campus, facilitating interdisciplinary dialogue. Fields such as astronomy, medicine, mathematics, and philology advanced significantly thanks to this vibrant intellectual environment.

A Symbolic Loss: 

Despite its grandeur, the Library of Alexandria became a tragic symbol of the fragility of knowledge. Accounts of its destruction vary widely, with historians attributing its loss to multiple incidents. Some sources claim that Julius Caesar’s siege of Alexandria in 48 BCE resulted in a fire that consumed part of its collection. Others suggest that the library suffered gradual neglect during the decline of the Ptolemaic dynasty and subsequent Roman rule. By the time of Emperor Aurelian’s invasion in the 3rd century CE, the library—or its remaining fragments—was likely destroyed.

Interestingly, the Serapeum, a "daughter library" established near the Serapis temple, continued to house scrolls even after the original library's decline. However, this too was dismantled in 391 CE under the orders of Bishop Theophilus during a Christian crackdown on pagan sites. By this time, the great Library of Alexandria had faded into myth.

Alexandria - View of ruins of the Serapeum from Pompey's Pillar, published by Daniel Mayer, 2008. ( Public domain)

Surviving Knowledge:

The loss of the Library of Alexandria has often been compared to losing the internet today—a catastrophic disruption to the dissemination of knowledge. Yet not all was lost. Monks, scholars, and scribes painstakingly copied and preserved many texts originally housed in the library. These works continued to influence medieval Europe, the Islamic Golden Age, and the Renaissance. For instance:

Ancient Greek medical texts informed Islamic scholars like Avicenna.

Persian Scholar Pavilion in Vienna International Centre donated by Iran. Jun 2009, published by Yamaha5 in wiki Commons ( public domain )

Astronomical and mathematical advancements influenced later European developments, including the work of Copernicus and Galileo.

Galileo Demonstrating His Telescope,Henry-Julien Detouche (Public Domain)

Cropped image of page 9 verso of the autograph manuscript of Nicolaus Copernicus: De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (1520-1541)
Published in Wikimedia Commons ( public domain )

The organization and cataloging techniques of the Pinakes served as a precursor to modern libraries.

British Museum Reading Room Panorama. ( Public domain)

Legacy in Modern Times:

The Library of Alexandria serves as an enduring metaphor for the pursuit of knowledge and the necessity of its preservation. Recognizing this legacy, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina was inaugurated in 2002 near the site of the ancient library. Designed to embody the spirit of its predecessor, this contemporary library houses millions of books, research facilities, and state-of-the-art digital archives. While it may never replicate the grandeur of the original, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina symbolizes a renewed commitment to learning and global collaboration.

The Bibliotheca Alexandrina's interior, from near the top, published by Carsten w ( public domain)

Conclusion: 

The Library of Alexandria remains a poignant reminder of human ambition and vulnerability. Its founders' vision to centralize all knowledge of the ancient world reflects a boundless curiosity that transcends cultures and eras. Simultaneously, its loss underscores the impermanence of even the greatest achievements without the diligence to preserve them. The story of the library is not just a narrative about books but a testament to the universal and timeless value of knowledge in shaping civilizations. Through continued efforts to study, document, and disseminate wisdom, we honor the legacy of this ancient treasure that forever changed the intellectual history of humanity.

Bibliography :

Books:

1. Canfora, L. (1990). The Vanished Library: A Wonder of the Ancient World. University of California Press.

2. El-Abbadi, M. (1992). The Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of Alexandria. UNESCO Publishing.

3. Kassab, G. (1998). Alexandria, a City of Knowledge. Dar al-Maarif.

4. Fraser, P. M. (2001). Ptolemaic Alexandria. Oxford University Press.

5. Hardy, G. H. (1971). Libraries of Ancient Alexandria and Rome. Greenwood Press.

Journal Articles:

6. MacLeod, R. (2000). “The Library of Alexandria: Centre of Learning in the Ancient World.” History Today, 50(7), 16–23.

7. Canfora, L. (1990). “Destruction of the Alexandrian Library: Examining the Evidence.” The Classical Quarterly, 38(2), 555–567.

8. Kassab, G. (1987). "Science, Knowledge, and Alexandria." Journal of Ancient History, 21(4), 422–439.

9. Thompson, D. J. (2003). “Philology at the Library of Alexandria.” Journal of Hellenic Studies, 123, 85–98.

10. Grafton, A. (2008). "Lost Libraries of Alexandria: A History." American Historical Review, 113(5), 1391–1412.

Online Resources and Databases:

11. UNESCO. (2002). The Alexandria Library Revival Project. 

12. Bagnall, R. (2008). “Papyrology and the Lost Texts of Alexandria.” Open Access Journal of Papyrology. Read Online

13. Library of Congress. (n.d.). "Legacy of the Alexandria Library." Digital Collection

Dissertations and Theses:

14. Alkins, J. R. (1989). Knowledge and Power: The Alexandrian Library under Ptolemaic Rule. (Doctoral dissertation). University of Michigan.

15. Thompson, G. B. (2012). The Role of the Museum and Library in Ancient Alexandria. (Master's thesis). University of Oxford.

Conference Proceedings: 

18. Hussain, M., & Robinson, J. (Eds.). (2010). Alexandria Revisited: Papers from the International Conference on Knowledge in Antiquity. Institute of Hellenic Studies, Athens.

The Bizarre Practice of Eating Egyptian Mummies as Medicine in the 16th Century

 

In the annals of medical history, few practices are as peculiar as the European consumption of Egyptian mummies as medicine. This trend, prevalent in the 16th and 17th centuries, reveals much about the intersections of science, pseudoscience, culture, and commerce in early modern Europe. What appears today as macabre folly was, at the time, regarded as mainstream medical practice, even endorsed by prominent physicians. By examining the historical, cultural, and medical underpinnings of mummy medicine, we can better understand how such a bizarre practice came to be.

Old engraved illustration of Egyptian embalming process ( embalming, or treating the dead body, that the ancient Egyptians used is called mummification) – stock photo

Historical Origins and Misunderstandings:

Published in ( historycaleve.com )

The concept of using human remains for medical purposes predates the Renaissance. Ancient Greek and Roman medical traditions set the stage for such practices, venerating substances like bitumen, a natural resin used for embalming. Bitumen, known for its alleged medicinal properties, was called mumia in Arabic. However, a linguistic conflation occurred over time: instead of referring to bitumen, "mumia" began to describe the embalmed bodies themselves.

Apothecary vessel (albarello) with inscription (MUMIA) dating 

to 18th century at Deutsches Apothekenmuseum Heidelberg, Germany, created by Bullenwächter, December 2011, published in Wikimedia Commons.

Apothekary vessel with inscription « MUMIÆ » and inventary number « No 217 ». The object is a part of the pharmacists collectioin of Museums für Hamburgische Geschichte, created

 by Christoph Braun, 2012, published in Wikimedia Commons

Greek historians like Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus documented the use of bitumen in Egyptian mummification, giving rise to the European assumption that embalmed remains carried potent curative properties. By the late Middle Ages, European interest in Egyptian artifacts—and by extension, mummies—had grown substantially. Stories of the exotic East coupled with rising Egyptomania imbued mummies with an almost mystical allure, paving the way for their commodification.

Natural formed Bitumen collected at the Dead Sea shore, published in Wikimedia Commons by Daniel Dzvi.

Renaissance Medicine and the Allure of Mummy Powder

The medical practices of Renaissance Europe were deeply influenced by humoral theory, the belief that health depended on balancing the body's four humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Physicians of the time sought remedies that would "restore balance" by transferring vitality or counteracting disease. In this context, powdered mummy—rich in the imagined life force of the ancient deceased—was seen as an ideal solution.

Renaissance Apothecary Mortar : Muzea Malopolska, A 17th-century apothecary mortar used for grinding, reflecting tools used in Renaissance pharmacies.

Paracelsus, a Swiss physician and alchemist, played a significant role in popularizing the medicinal use of human remains. He argued that the human body contained unique, unparalleled curative properties, leading him and his followers to promote therapies involving human blood, fat, and bones. Mummy medicine became intertwined with this broader trend of medical cannibalism.

Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim [Paracelsus]. Reproduction, 1927, of etching by A. Hirschvogel, 1538. Published in Wikimedia Commons ( public domain )

In the cultural milieu of early modern Europe, Egyptian mummies symbolized immortality and mystery. Their perfect preservation was interpreted as evidence of exceptional vitality, feeding the belief that consuming them could impart health benefits. Physicians marketed mummy powder as a panacea for ailments ranging from headaches and internal bleeding to epilepsy and gout.

Published in Flickr.com, public domain 

Papyrus of Anubis preparing a mummy : a detail from the papyrus of Ani, a Theban Book of the Dead from the British Museum’s collection. (Photo by CM Dixon/Print Collector/Getty Images)

Trade, Fraud, and Ethics:

The mummy trade became a lucrative, albeit morally questionable, enterprise. Egyptian tombs were plundered, and the remains of pharaohs and commoners alike were exported to Europe. Mummies were ground into fine powders and sold in apothecaries, often commanding high prices due to their supposed medicinal potency.

Apothecary vessel for mumia at the German Pharmacy 

Museum, in Heidelberg Image credit : Zinnmann, 2014.

However, as demand outstripped supply, the mummy trade descended into a realm of fraud. Guy de la Fontaine, a royal physician, exposed widespread deceit during his travels in Egypt. He documented how traders manufactured fake mummies by embalming recently deceased individuals and filling their bodies with bitumen to mimic the authentic remains. This fraudulent practice extended beyond Egypt, with merchants in North Africa and even Europe creating counterfeit "mummy" products.

Bonfils Family, Momie égyptienne, Medinet-Abou, Egypt, c. 1870, printed later. Harvard Art Museums/Fogg Museum. An Egyptian mummy dealer selling his wares in 1870.

19th-century engravings showing scholars inside Egyptian tombs, Published by Willem witteveen ( willemwitteveen.com/sakhra-the-rock/ )

The ethical implications of these practices stirred controversy. Many questioned the morality of desecrating graves for commercial gain. Physician Ambroise Paré, a vocal critic of mummy medicine, condemned it as both unethical and ineffective. Yet, skepticism was often drowned out by the allure of profit and the deeply ingrained belief in mummy medicine's efficacy.

Ambroise Paré (15101590) (courtesy, National Library of Medicine), published in ResearchGate by Meredith P. Gronski.

The Applications of Mummy Medicine:

The uses of mummy powder were as diverse as they were unsettling. Physicians prescribed it for internal and external ailments, often incorporating it into elaborate remedies. Nicholas Culpeper, a renowned herbalist, included recipes for creating mummy-like medicines from animals, highlighting the fluid definition of "mummy" in later centuries.

"In Effigiam Nicholai Culpeper Equitis," portrait of Nicholas Culpeper, etching, by  Richard Gaywood. Courtesy of the British Museum, London. Published in Wikimedia Commons ( public domain ). 

Royalty and elites were among mummy medicine's most avid consumers. King Charles II of England, for example, regularly consumed "The King’s Drops," a concoction made from powdered human skull and alcohol. Physicians also created products like chocolate-infused skull powder, blending ancient practices with contemporary tastes. 

Portrait of King Charles II by John Michael Wright. (Public domain), published in Wikimedia Commons.

Published in the article : « The King’s Drops : Charles II, Powdered Skulls and a Deathbed Obsession », Ancient Origins.

Mummy medicine's cultural penetration extended to literature, as seen in Shakespeare’s plays, which referenced mummy as an ingredient in mystical potions.

llustration Of The Witches Around Their Cauldron In Macbeth. From The Illustrated Library Shakspeare, Published London 1890. (Photo by : Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)

Decline of the mummy medicine:

By the 18th century, mummy medicine began to wane, driven by advances in scientific understanding and shifts in cultural attitudes. The rise of germ theory, improved anatomical knowledge, and more effective medical practices exposed the inefficacy and dangers of consuming mummies. The focus shifted from exploiting mummies as medicinal resources to studying them as archaeological treasures, reflecting a growing appreciation for ancient civilizations.

Entrance to one of the Royal Tombs at Thebes, Taken from « TRAVELS IN EGYPT DURING 1818 AND 1819 » by Edward De Montule , published in Wikimedia Commons

By David Castleton|June 9th, 2021|Categories : Folklore Modern & Ancient|Tags : Egyptomania, Weird Victoriana, in David Castleton Blog.

The decline of mummy medicine did not mark the end of Europe’s fascination with Egypt. Instead, it evolved into a more scholarly Egyptomania. Explorers, archaeologists, and collectors sought to uncover Egypt’s mysteries, fueling the emergence of Egyptology as a scientific discipline.

A visitor photographs a casket lid from ancient Egypt at the exhibition “Mummies” in the American Museum of Natural History in New York, March 2017. Visual : Johannes Schmitt-Tegge/picture alliance via Getty Images

Egyptian Mummies : Exploring Ancient Lives, Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, published in World History

Conclusion:

The practice of consuming Egyptian mummies as medicine offers a window into the complexities of early modern science, culture, and commerce. What began as a misinterpretation of Arabic texts grew into a global trade, driven by Renaissance medicine’s quest for miraculous cures. This peculiar chapter in history underscores humanity’s enduring fascination with immortality and the lengths to which people will go in their pursuit of health and longevity.

As bizarre and unsettling as it seems today, mummy medicine reminds us oft he importance of skepticism and critical inquiry in medical practice. While the trend has long since disappeared, its legacy persists in the ongoing fascination with the enigmatic civilization that unknowingly supplied its key ingredient.

Bibliography :

• Barrios-Lech, Peter. The Consumed Dead: Medicine and the Misappropriation of the Egyptian Mummy in Early Modern Europe. Journal of Historical Medicine, 2021.

• Bierbrier, Morris I. The Mummy: A Handbook of Egyptian Funerary Archaeology. London: British Museum Press, 1997.

• Humboldt, Alexander von. "Medical Uses of Human Remains: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives." Social History of Medicine 9, no. 2 (1996): 202–221.

• Paré, Ambroise. The Apology and Treatise of Ambroise Paré: Containing the Voyages Made Into Divers Places, With Many of His Writings Upon Surgery. Edited and translated by Geoffrey Keynes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951.

• Peck, William H. Mummies of the Pharaohs: Modern Medical Investigations. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2001.

• Pliny the Elder. Natural History. Translated by H. Rackham. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1942.

• Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

• Röhring, Andreas. “Bitumen and the Origins of Mumia in the Ancient World.” Historical Biology: An International Journal of Paleobiology 15, no. 2 (2001): 145–158.

• Sugg, Richard. Mummies, Cannibals and Vampires: The History of Corpse Medicine from the Renaissance to the Victorians. New York: Routledge, 2011.

• Tamm, Ulrike. "Egyptomania and the Cultural Construction of Exotic Remedies in Early Modern Europe." History of Science, vol. 55, no. 3 (2017): 245–266.