The Bizarre Practice of Eating Egyptian Mummies as Medicine in the 16th Century

 

In the annals of medical history, few practices are as peculiar as the European consumption of Egyptian mummies as medicine. This trend, prevalent in the 16th and 17th centuries, reveals much about the intersections of science, pseudoscience, culture, and commerce in early modern Europe. What appears today as macabre folly was, at the time, regarded as mainstream medical practice, even endorsed by prominent physicians. By examining the historical, cultural, and medical underpinnings of mummy medicine, we can better understand how such a bizarre practice came to be.

Old engraved illustration of Egyptian embalming process ( embalming, or treating the dead body, that the ancient Egyptians used is called mummification) – stock photo

Historical Origins and Misunderstandings:

Published in ( historycaleve.com )

The concept of using human remains for medical purposes predates the Renaissance. Ancient Greek and Roman medical traditions set the stage for such practices, venerating substances like bitumen, a natural resin used for embalming. Bitumen, known for its alleged medicinal properties, was called mumia in Arabic. However, a linguistic conflation occurred over time: instead of referring to bitumen, "mumia" began to describe the embalmed bodies themselves.

Apothecary vessel (albarello) with inscription (MUMIA) dating 

to 18th century at Deutsches Apothekenmuseum Heidelberg, Germany, created by Bullenwächter, December 2011, published in Wikimedia Commons.

Apothekary vessel with inscription « MUMIÆ » and inventary number « No 217 ». The object is a part of the pharmacists collectioin of Museums für Hamburgische Geschichte, created

 by Christoph Braun, 2012, published in Wikimedia Commons

Greek historians like Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus documented the use of bitumen in Egyptian mummification, giving rise to the European assumption that embalmed remains carried potent curative properties. By the late Middle Ages, European interest in Egyptian artifacts—and by extension, mummies—had grown substantially. Stories of the exotic East coupled with rising Egyptomania imbued mummies with an almost mystical allure, paving the way for their commodification.

Natural formed Bitumen collected at the Dead Sea shore, published in Wikimedia Commons by Daniel Dzvi.

Renaissance Medicine and the Allure of Mummy Powder

The medical practices of Renaissance Europe were deeply influenced by humoral theory, the belief that health depended on balancing the body's four humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Physicians of the time sought remedies that would "restore balance" by transferring vitality or counteracting disease. In this context, powdered mummy—rich in the imagined life force of the ancient deceased—was seen as an ideal solution.

Renaissance Apothecary Mortar : Muzea Malopolska, A 17th-century apothecary mortar used for grinding, reflecting tools used in Renaissance pharmacies.

Paracelsus, a Swiss physician and alchemist, played a significant role in popularizing the medicinal use of human remains. He argued that the human body contained unique, unparalleled curative properties, leading him and his followers to promote therapies involving human blood, fat, and bones. Mummy medicine became intertwined with this broader trend of medical cannibalism.

Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim [Paracelsus]. Reproduction, 1927, of etching by A. Hirschvogel, 1538. Published in Wikimedia Commons ( public domain )

In the cultural milieu of early modern Europe, Egyptian mummies symbolized immortality and mystery. Their perfect preservation was interpreted as evidence of exceptional vitality, feeding the belief that consuming them could impart health benefits. Physicians marketed mummy powder as a panacea for ailments ranging from headaches and internal bleeding to epilepsy and gout.

Published in Flickr.com, public domain 

Papyrus of Anubis preparing a mummy : a detail from the papyrus of Ani, a Theban Book of the Dead from the British Museum’s collection. (Photo by CM Dixon/Print Collector/Getty Images)

Trade, Fraud, and Ethics:

The mummy trade became a lucrative, albeit morally questionable, enterprise. Egyptian tombs were plundered, and the remains of pharaohs and commoners alike were exported to Europe. Mummies were ground into fine powders and sold in apothecaries, often commanding high prices due to their supposed medicinal potency.

Apothecary vessel for mumia at the German Pharmacy 

Museum, in Heidelberg Image credit : Zinnmann, 2014.

However, as demand outstripped supply, the mummy trade descended into a realm of fraud. Guy de la Fontaine, a royal physician, exposed widespread deceit during his travels in Egypt. He documented how traders manufactured fake mummies by embalming recently deceased individuals and filling their bodies with bitumen to mimic the authentic remains. This fraudulent practice extended beyond Egypt, with merchants in North Africa and even Europe creating counterfeit "mummy" products.

Bonfils Family, Momie égyptienne, Medinet-Abou, Egypt, c. 1870, printed later. Harvard Art Museums/Fogg Museum. An Egyptian mummy dealer selling his wares in 1870.

19th-century engravings showing scholars inside Egyptian tombs, Published by Willem witteveen ( willemwitteveen.com/sakhra-the-rock/ )

The ethical implications of these practices stirred controversy. Many questioned the morality of desecrating graves for commercial gain. Physician Ambroise Paré, a vocal critic of mummy medicine, condemned it as both unethical and ineffective. Yet, skepticism was often drowned out by the allure of profit and the deeply ingrained belief in mummy medicine's efficacy.

Ambroise Paré (15101590) (courtesy, National Library of Medicine), published in ResearchGate by Meredith P. Gronski.

The Applications of Mummy Medicine:

The uses of mummy powder were as diverse as they were unsettling. Physicians prescribed it for internal and external ailments, often incorporating it into elaborate remedies. Nicholas Culpeper, a renowned herbalist, included recipes for creating mummy-like medicines from animals, highlighting the fluid definition of "mummy" in later centuries.

"In Effigiam Nicholai Culpeper Equitis," portrait of Nicholas Culpeper, etching, by  Richard Gaywood. Courtesy of the British Museum, London. Published in Wikimedia Commons ( public domain ). 

Royalty and elites were among mummy medicine's most avid consumers. King Charles II of England, for example, regularly consumed "The King’s Drops," a concoction made from powdered human skull and alcohol. Physicians also created products like chocolate-infused skull powder, blending ancient practices with contemporary tastes. 

Portrait of King Charles II by John Michael Wright. (Public domain), published in Wikimedia Commons.

Published in the article : « The King’s Drops : Charles II, Powdered Skulls and a Deathbed Obsession », Ancient Origins.

Mummy medicine's cultural penetration extended to literature, as seen in Shakespeare’s plays, which referenced mummy as an ingredient in mystical potions.

llustration Of The Witches Around Their Cauldron In Macbeth. From The Illustrated Library Shakspeare, Published London 1890. (Photo by : Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)

Decline of the mummy medicine:

By the 18th century, mummy medicine began to wane, driven by advances in scientific understanding and shifts in cultural attitudes. The rise of germ theory, improved anatomical knowledge, and more effective medical practices exposed the inefficacy and dangers of consuming mummies. The focus shifted from exploiting mummies as medicinal resources to studying them as archaeological treasures, reflecting a growing appreciation for ancient civilizations.

Entrance to one of the Royal Tombs at Thebes, Taken from « TRAVELS IN EGYPT DURING 1818 AND 1819 » by Edward De Montule , published in Wikimedia Commons

By David Castleton|June 9th, 2021|Categories : Folklore Modern & Ancient|Tags : Egyptomania, Weird Victoriana, in David Castleton Blog.

The decline of mummy medicine did not mark the end of Europe’s fascination with Egypt. Instead, it evolved into a more scholarly Egyptomania. Explorers, archaeologists, and collectors sought to uncover Egypt’s mysteries, fueling the emergence of Egyptology as a scientific discipline.

A visitor photographs a casket lid from ancient Egypt at the exhibition “Mummies” in the American Museum of Natural History in New York, March 2017. Visual : Johannes Schmitt-Tegge/picture alliance via Getty Images

Egyptian Mummies : Exploring Ancient Lives, Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, published in World History

Conclusion:

The practice of consuming Egyptian mummies as medicine offers a window into the complexities of early modern science, culture, and commerce. What began as a misinterpretation of Arabic texts grew into a global trade, driven by Renaissance medicine’s quest for miraculous cures. This peculiar chapter in history underscores humanity’s enduring fascination with immortality and the lengths to which people will go in their pursuit of health and longevity.

As bizarre and unsettling as it seems today, mummy medicine reminds us oft he importance of skepticism and critical inquiry in medical practice. While the trend has long since disappeared, its legacy persists in the ongoing fascination with the enigmatic civilization that unknowingly supplied its key ingredient.

Bibliography :

• Barrios-Lech, Peter. The Consumed Dead: Medicine and the Misappropriation of the Egyptian Mummy in Early Modern Europe. Journal of Historical Medicine, 2021.

• Bierbrier, Morris I. The Mummy: A Handbook of Egyptian Funerary Archaeology. London: British Museum Press, 1997.

• Humboldt, Alexander von. "Medical Uses of Human Remains: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives." Social History of Medicine 9, no. 2 (1996): 202–221.

• Paré, Ambroise. The Apology and Treatise of Ambroise Paré: Containing the Voyages Made Into Divers Places, With Many of His Writings Upon Surgery. Edited and translated by Geoffrey Keynes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951.

• Peck, William H. Mummies of the Pharaohs: Modern Medical Investigations. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2001.

• Pliny the Elder. Natural History. Translated by H. Rackham. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1942.

• Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

• Röhring, Andreas. “Bitumen and the Origins of Mumia in the Ancient World.” Historical Biology: An International Journal of Paleobiology 15, no. 2 (2001): 145–158.

• Sugg, Richard. Mummies, Cannibals and Vampires: The History of Corpse Medicine from the Renaissance to the Victorians. New York: Routledge, 2011.

• Tamm, Ulrike. "Egyptomania and the Cultural Construction of Exotic Remedies in Early Modern Europe." History of Science, vol. 55, no. 3 (2017): 245–266.

Tin Hinan, the Queen of the Tuareg: reading between historical reality and legend

 

Introduction:

The Queen Tin Hinan, a legendary figure from the 4th century, is considered the ancestor of the Tuareg people of North Africa. Known for her beauty, wisdom, and frequent travels, she is revered as "the mother of us all." Tin Hinan's origins are shrouded in mystery, with various oral traditions offering differing accounts of her life. Some say she was a princess exiled from the northern Sahara, while others believe she was a Berber Muslim from the Tafilalt oasis. In 1925, Byron Khun de Porok discovered her tomb in the Hoggar mountains, confirming her existence. However, little is known about her tribe, family, or cause of death. While historical documentation about her life remains sparse, archaeological and oral traditions have preserved her legacy. The tale of Tin Hinan presents a fascinating convergence of history, myth, and archaeology, shedding light on the cultural and political foundations of the Tuareg people.

      The Queen Tin Hinan: making by the AI

I. The Legend of Tin Hinan:

Tin Hinan and the Tuareg people

1/ The Tuareg people: who are them?

Elegance | An amazingly elegant tuareg family ... created by Emilia Tjernström | Flickr

The Tuareg, also known as "the blue people of the Sahara," are a semi-nomadic, pastoralist Berber group primarily found in North Africa. Their name stems from the indigo turbans worn by men, which often stain their skin. Historically feared and respected, they controlled desert trade routes and resisted invasions from various empires, including the Phoenicians, Romans, and French. Today, the Tuareg number between 1.5 to 2.5 million, spread across countries like Algeria, Libya, Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, and Nigeria. They are mostly Muslim and speak the Tamasheq language. Despite being a minority, they maintain a strong cultural identity, although political unrest has led many to migrate south.

2/The Queen Tin Hinan: Myth or Fact?

Tin Hinan, a legendary figure of the Tuareg people, has captivated imaginations and inspired both literary and scholarly works. Her enduring presence as a symbol of the Tuareg societal structure highlights her significance.  

Etymologically, her name derives from the Tamasheq roots "ti" (feminine singular pronoun "she"), "n" (possessive preposition "of"), and "ihinan" (plural noun from the verb "han", meaning "to migrate or move"). Together, Tin Hinan means "she of the journeys" or "the migrant." This interpretation emphasizes her connection to a nomadic lifestyle central to the Tuareg culture.  

The legend recounts her arrival in the Ahaggar region from Tafilalet (Morocco) with her servant Takammat, who saved their caravan by finding food in an anthill. Upon settling, they encountered a local population described as primitive hunters and gatherers. Over time, Tin Hinan is said to have introduced the camel, fundamentally shaping the local way of life.  

Historically, references to Tin Hinan have been intertwined with myth. Ibn Khaldoun, for instance, associates her with "Tiski the Limping Woman," an ancestor of veiled Sanhadja tribes, while archaeological findings date her tomb in Abalessa to the 4th century CE. The discovery of a skeleton believed to be hers included artifacts reflecting North African and Sudanese influences.  

Anthropological studies on her remains have sparked debate, with some scholars questioning her gender based on skeletal features, despite the presence of traditionally feminine burial objects. Oral traditions further complicate her narrative, blending historical, mythological, and symbolic elements.  

Tin Hinan serves as more than an individual; she embodies the Tuareg identity and matrilineal traditions. Her legend is reflected in similar myths of female founders across Tuareg society, reinforcing the role of women in the preservation of culture, land inheritance, and societal order.  

II. Historical and Archaeological Context:

The discover Tin Hinan's tomb 

  Burial of Tin Hinan (Bardo Museum, Algiers) published by Yelles/ Wikimedia Commons 

The mausoleum of Tin Hinan, first discovered in 1925 by a Franco-American mission. The Count Byron Khun de Prorok, a Polish-American amateur archaeologist, unearthed a monumental circular tomb in Abalessa, southern Algeria, during a Saharan expedition supported by French authorities. Measuring 4 meters in height and 23 meters in diameter, the tomb is traditionally believed to be that of Tin Hinan. and later in 1933 by Maurice Reygasse, remains shrouded in mystery. Tin Hinan, regarded as the legendary ancestor of the Tuaregs of the Ahaggar, continues to raise numerous archaeological and historical questions. Oral traditions among the Tuaregs about her are often contradictory, and the evolving nature of oral history fails to provide definitive answers. According to eyewitnesses, the mausoleum, before its excavation, appeared as an unstructured heap of stones and earth with no clear architectural features. Yet, it was attributed symbolic or spiritual significance by locals.  

The initial excavations revealed rooms and a burial chamber covered with large stone slabs, beneath which a skeleton was found alongside jewelry and valuable items. Later studies confirmed that this mausoleum was neither a fort nor a kasbah but part of the protohistoric Berber funerary architecture, similar to structures found in Tafilalet, Mauritania, and northern Algeria.  

Ancient manuscripts mention Tin Hinan as a prominent historical figure, but the dates cited, such as her presence in Tidikelt in the 17th century, conflict with carbon-14 analysis, which dates her death to around the 5th century CE. Despite this, these manuscripts, most of which are modern copies, highlight the symbolic importance of this figure, even though they lack precise historical reliability.  

Anthropological studies revealed that Tin Hinan was tall (172–175 cm) and suffered from conditions that caused her to limp. Her pelvis exhibited ambiguous characteristics, suggesting she may not have borne children. However, Tuareg oral traditions claim that the nobles of the 18th century were direct descendants of her, despite a 13-century gap between her era and theirs.  

This chronological gap raises questions about how her memory was transmitted and how collective identity was constructed. While the matrilineal traditions of the Tuaregs are symbolically linked to Tin Hinan, no clear evidence connects her to a biological lineage. This cultural trait, unique to the Tuaregs, contrasts with the dominant patriarchal practices of other Berber societies.  

Despite archaeological discoveries and anthropological studies, Tin Hinan’s story remains partially enigmatic. Her legendary role and the affection she inspires among an entire people reflect her symbolic significance, but questions about her geographical, ethnic, and historical origins remain unresolved.

III. Contemporary Relevance:

Tin Hinan The Cultural Icon of the Tuareg People

Tuareg Nomads | In the Saharan Desert part of Mali, a man shelters… created by Bradley Watson| Flickr

Tin Hinan is recognized as a central historical and cultural figure among the Tuareg people. Her achievements, particularly as a woman from a foreign land, were remarkable given the sociopolitical challenges and gender dynamics of her era. Historical narratives attribute to her a combination of wisdom, intelligence, courage, and resilience, qualities that enabled her to overcome opposition, gain the trust of the local population, unite them, and ascend as their leader. Her legacy endures, with annual festivals held in her honor in the oasis city of Tamanrasset, Algeria, from February 20 to 28.

Tin Hinan is often referred to by contemporary Tuareg communities as the "African Amazon Queen," highlighting her reputed prowess as a warrior. Additionally, she is credited with possessing extensive knowledge of herbal medicine, healing practices, and the teaching of poetry and the Tifinagh alphabet, the traditional script of the Tuareg. Her most significant accomplishment was the unification of the Tuareg people and the establishment of a kingdom in the Hoggar region. Her daughter, Kella, is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Kel Rela tribe.

Under Queen Tin Hinan's leadership, the Tuaregs established vital caravan trading routes, which facilitated substantial economic prosperity and wealth during the 4th and 5th centuries CE. While Tin Hinan is broadly recognized as the founder of the Tuareg confederation, it is suggested that the Ihadanaren tribe directly descends from her, whereas the plebeian tribes of Dag Rali and Ait Loaien are believed to have descended from her companion, Takamat. This enduring historical and cultural significance underscores Tin Hinan's role as a foundational figure in Tuareg heritage.

Conclusion:

While archaeology seeks to distinguish historical fact from legend, the myth of Tin Hinan continues to be a living model of Tuareg ideology and cultural resilience. As a Tuareg elder aptly remarked, “Tin Hinan is like the air we breathe; she is everywhere in the Ahaggar.”

Her legacy, encapsulated in the stories of her wisdom and strength, endures as a symbol of Tuareg unity, matrilineal heritage, and resilience. As both a historical and mythical figure, Tin Hinan's influence on the Tuareg people is profound and her story continues to inspire future generations. 

Bibliography:

• Bovill, E.W. The Golden Trade of the Moors. London: Oxford University Press, 1958.    

• Lhote, Henri. The Search for the Tassili Frescoes. New York: Dutton, 1959.

• Prorok, Byron Khun de. Mysterious Sahara: The Land of Gold, of Sand, and of Ruins. London: Hurst & Blackett, 1929.

• Nicolaisen, Johannes. The Pastoral Tuareg: Ecology, Culture, and Society. London: Thames and Hudson, 1963.

• Camps, Gabriel. Les Berbères: Mémoire et identité. Paris: Errance, 1980.

• Werner, Louis. "The Legendary Queen Tin Hinan." Saudi Aramco World, 1998.